Sodium Nitroprusside

How does it work?

Sodium nitroprusside breaks down in the blood and releases a chemical call nitric oxide (NO). Nitric oxide enters the muscle cells in the walls of the blood vessels and causes them to relax. When the muscles relax, the blood vessels become wider and the blood pressure decreases.Sodium nitroprusside is used for the emergency treatment of high blood pressure (hypertensive crisis). It is also used to produce controlled hypotension (low blood pressure)in anaesthetised patients during surgery. It has been used in the emergency treatment of severe heart failure to reduce heart workload.

What is it used for?

• Controlled induction of hypotension during certain surgical procedures.
• Dangerously high blood pressure (hypertensive crisis)
• Severe heart failure

Warning!

• You should not suddenly stop taking this medicine unless your doctor tells you otherwise.
• Symptoms of hypothyroidism may occur.

Use with caution in

• Dangerously low body temperature (hypothermia)
• Decreased kidney function
• Low blood sodium levels (hyponatraemia)
• Low plasma levels of vitamin B12
• People over the age of 75 years

Not to be used in

• A rare inherited disease affecting young males causing the loss of sight in the centre of the field of vision (Lebers optic atrophy)
• Disorder of blood flow to the brain (cerebral insufficiency)
• High blood pressure which is due to a physical cause (compensatory hypertension)
• Severe liver disease
• Vitamin B12 deficiency

This medicine should not be used if you are allergic to one or any of its ingredients. Please inform your doctor or pharmacist if you have previously experienced such an allergy.If you feel you have experienced an allergic reaction, stop using this medicine and inform your doctor or pharmacist immediately.

Pregnancy and Breastfeeding

Certain medicines should not be used during pregnancy or breastfeeding. However, other medicines may be safely used in pregnancy or breastfeeding providing the benefits to the mother outweigh the risks to the unborn baby. Always inform your doctor if you are pregnant or planning a pregnancy, before using any medicine.

• This medicine should be used with caution during pregnancy, and only if the expected benefit to the mother is greater than any possible risk to the foetus. Seek medical advice from your doctor.
• This medicine should be used with caution by breastfeeding mothers, and only if the expected benefit to the mother is greater than any possible risk to the baby. Seek medical advice from your doctor.

Side effects

Medicines and their possible side effects can affect individual people in different ways. The following are some of the side effects that are known to be associated with this medicine. Because a side effect is stated here, it does not mean that all people using this medicine will experience that or any side effect.

• Headache
• Abdominal pain
• Drowsiness
• Nausea
• Involuntary muscle movements such as tremors or twitching
• Sweating
• Restlessness
• Pins and needles (paraesthesia)
• Awareness of your heartbeat (palpitations)
• Dizziness
• Retching
• A drop in blood pressure that occurs when going from lying down to sitting or standing, which results in dizziness and lightheadedness (postural hypotension)
• Redness around injection site
• Increased heart rate (tachycardia)

The side effects listed above may not include all of the side effects reported by the drug's manufacturer.For more information about any other possible risks associated with this medicine, please read the information provided with the medicine or consult your doctor or pharmacist.

How can this medicine affect other medicines?

When taken together with ganglion blockers, anaesthetic agents and other circulatory depressants, the blood pressure lowering effects are increased.

Reference:

http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/medicines/100002418.html

Where Is Titration Used in Industry?

1.                               Titration is a technique used in chemistry to measure the proportions of chemicals in a solution. It is a relatively simple process and a standard tool in any of the many branches of chemistry. Because of the versatility of the titration technique, many industries depend on various forms of titration to develop or analyze key chemical compounds. Titration is utilized in companies that affect nearly all aspects of society.

Acid Rain

2.                               Environmental studies usually involve an analysis of precipitation and its response to pollution. To quantify the degree of contamination in natural rain water or snow, titration is used. The process is quick and results are reliable. Since most titration processes do not require expensive or specialized equipment, the test can be performed often and in different areas with relatively little effort.

Wastewater Analysis

3.                               The safety of water is based on its chemical ingredients. By analyzing wastewater, the extent of contamination and the requirements for filtering and cleaning can be determined. Titration is a key mechanism in this analysis. Often, more specialized titration equipment is used in this application that can measure ammonia levels in combination with other reactants to quantify other chemicals present.

Nutrition

4.                               The compounds which make up food products help determine their nutritional implications. Titration is one technique that assists in these studies. The acidity of orange juice, for example, is easily determined using a standard titration process. In this process, an electrode is added to a solution comprised of orange juice and deionized water. The titrant catalyst then measures the acidity of the juice. Manufacturers can use the technique to vary this quality to satisfy customers or those with special nutritional needs.

Wine

5.                               The flavor of wine is a delicate balance often affected by its degree of acidity. This quality also affects how the wine responds to age. It is possible to improve wine production by measuring acidity using titration. Simple, inexpensive titration kits are available to winemakers for this purpose. The process is straightforward and uses minimal equipment. The results of a titration test on wine can suggest if additional ingredients are necessary to maintain its quality.

Pharmacology

6.                               The development of medication is a precise science that relies on specific measurements of chemical quantities. Titration is thus an important part of the pharmaceutical industry to ensure quality control. Many variations of the titration technique are used, and often specialized equipment for pharmaceutical titration is developed to make the process more efficient.

Most About Titration

What is titration?
Titration is an analytical technique which allows the quantitative determination of a specific substance (analyte) dissolved in a sample. It is based on a complete chemical reaction between the analyte and a reagent (titrant) of known concentration which is added to the sample:
Analyte + Reagent(Titrant) -> Reaction Products
The titrant is added until the reaction is complete. In order to be suitable for a determination, the end of the titration reaction has to be easily observable. This means that the reaction has to be monitored (indicated) by appropriate techniques, e.g. potentiometry (potential measurement with a sensor) or with colour indicators. The measurement of the dispensed titrant volume allows the calculation of the analyte content based on the stoichiometry of the chemical reaction. The reaction involved in a titration must be fast, complete, unambiguous and observable.
A well-known example is the titration of acetic acid in vinegar with sodium hydroxide.

What are the advantages of titration?
+ Classical, well-known analytical technique
+ Fast
+ Very accurate and precise technique
+ High degree of automation
+ Good price/performance ratio compared to more sophisticated techniques
+ It can be used by low-skilled and trained operators
+ No need for highly specialised chemical knowledge

In which industries or segments is titration used?
A non-comprehensive listing of industries using titration:
Car Manufacturing, Ceramics, Chemical industry, Coal products, Coating, Cosmetics
Detergents 
Electronic, Electroplating, Energy, Explosives
Food
Glass, Government
Health
Leather
Machinery
Packing materials, Paints, Pigments, Paper&Pulp, Petroleum, Pharmaceuticals, Photo, Plastic products, Printing & Publishing
Rail, Rubber
Stone (Clay, Cement)
Textile, Tobacco
Water
Zeolite

What is an autotitrator?
Automated titrators are microprocessor-controlled instruments which allow the automation of all operations involved in titration:
1. Titrant addition
2. Monitoring of the reaction (Signal acquisition)
3. Recognition of the endpoint
4. Data storage
5. Calculation
6. Results storage
7. Transfer of data to printer or computer/external system

How does an autotitrator work?
Automated titrators follow a defined sequence of operations. This sequence is basically the same for all different models and brands. It is performed and repeated several times until the endpoint or the equivalence point of the titration reaction is reached (titration cycle). The titration cycle consists mainly of 4 steps:

1. Titrant addition
2. Titration reaction
3. Signal acquisition
4. Evaluation

Each step has different specific parameters (e.g. increment size) which have to be defined according to the specific titration application. More complex applications require more steps, e.g. dispensing of an additional reagent for back titrations, dilution, adjusting of the pH value. These steps and the corresponding parameters are resumed in a titration method.

What is the historical development of autotitrators?
The classical way:
Titration is a classical analytical technique widely used. Originally, it was performed by adding the titrant using a graduated glass cylinder (burette). With a tap the titrant addition was regulated manually. A change in colour indicated the end of the titration reaction (endpoint). At first, only those titrations showing a significant colour change upon reaching the endpoint were performed. Later titrations were coloured artificially with an indicator dye. The precision achieved depended mainly on the chemist's skills and, in particular, on his different colour perception.The modern way:
Titration has experienced a strong development: manual and -later- motorized piston burettes allow reproducible and accurate titrant addition. Electrodes for potential measurement replace the colour indicators, achieving higher precision and accuracy of the results. Graphical plot of potential versus titrant volume allows a more exact statement about the reaction than the colour change at the endpoint. With microprocessors the titration can be controlled and evaluated automatically. This represents a relevant step towards complete automation.

Today and tomorrow:
Developmentis not yet complete. Modern autotitrators allow the definition of complete analysis sequences achieving maximum flexibility in method development. For each application the specific method can be defined by combining simple operation functions like "Dose", "Stir", "Titrate", "Calculate" in a defined sequence. Auxiliary instruments (sample changers, pumps) help in reducing and simplifying the work load in laboratories. A further trend is the connection to computers and Laboratory Information Management Systems (LIMS).

Which types of chemical reactions are used in titration?
There are several assay reactions which are used in titration:

Acid/Base reactions:
Examples: Acid content in wine, milk. Acid content in ketchup. Content of inorganic acids like sulfuric acid. 

Precipitation reactions:
Examples: Salt content in crisps, ketchup and food; Silver content in coins,
Sulfate content in mineral water; Sulfate content in electroplating bath

Redox reactions:
Examples: Content of copper, chromium and nickel in electroplating baths

Complexometric reactions:
Examples: Total hardness of water (Mg and Ca); Calcium content in milk and cheese; Cement analysis 

Colloidalprecipitation reaction:
Examples: Anionic surfactant content in detergents; Anionic surfactant content in washing powders; Anionic surfactant content in liquid cleanser.

What are the indication methods used in titration?
Titrations can be classified according to the indication principles and the chemical reaction occurring:

Potentiometry:
The concentration-dependent potential (mV) of a solution is measured against a reference potential.
Examples: Acid/Base (aqueous/non-aqueous), redox, precipitation reactions.

Titration Uses in Everyday Life

1.                               Titration is a process or method to determine the concentration of a substance in an unknown solution, in which a known reagent is added to an unknown solution to produce a known reaction such as a change in color or electrical measurement. While it is more commonly associated with high school chemistry labs, medicine and the science industry, many common items use titration to test for the presence of various substances.

Blood Sugar Testing

2.                               Diabetics can measure the amount of glucose in their blood by using a small portable machine called a blood glucose meter. To use the machine, a small sample of blood is applied to a test strip and mixed with reactants, then a small electrical current is applied to the sample. The current is affected by the concentration of the reactants and can then be used to measure the amount of glucose present in the blood.

Pregnancy Testing

3.                               Home pregnancy testing kits detect the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in a subject's urine applied to a test strip or solution. The application of urine causes a color change that will indicate either a positive or negative test result as early as two weeks after conception. A more comprehensive pregnancy test applies titration to a blood sample to measure the specific amount of hCG present in the blood. This test can also detect possible problems with the pregnancy and determine how long the subject has been pregnant and can only be performed by a health care provider.

Aquarium Water Testing

4.                               The water in a home aquarium constitutes a small and delicately balanced environment for fish. If the properties of aquarium water change too drastically, disease and death of pets can result. In order to monitor changes in water conditions, home test kits are sold containing chemicals to test the pH level of water as well as the levels of ammonia, nitrites, nitrates and phosphates by placing a measured amount of the test chemical in a water sample and observing the extent, if any, of the resulting color change.

The Uses of Volumetric Analysis

Volumetric analysis is a general term for a method in quantitative chemical analysis in which the amount of a substance is determined by the measurement of the volume that the substance occupies. It is commonly used to determine the unknown concentration of a known reactant. Volumetric analysis is often referred to as titration, a laboratory technique in which one substance of known concentration and volume is used to react with another substance of unknown concentration.

Introduction

1.                               Volumetric analysis was first introduced by Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas, a French chemist. He used it to determine the proportion of nitrogen combined with other elements in organic compounds, according to Encyclopedia Britannica. Dumas burned a sample of a compound with known weight in a furnace under conditions that ensured the conversion of all nitrogen into elemental nitrogen gas or N2.

History

2.                               In Dumas' experiment, the nitrogen from the furnace was then carried in a stream of carbon dioxide and passed into a strong alkali solution. The solution absorbed the carbon dioxide and allowed the nitrogen to accumulate in the tube. According to Britannica.com, the mass of the nitrogen was then calculated from the volume that it occupied under the known conditions of pressure and temperature. As a result, the proportion of nitrogen in the sample was determined.

Titration

3.                               Titration is the process of obtaining quantitative information from a given sample, according to the University of Waterloo, that involves a fast chemical reaction. When the reaction involves an acid and a base, the method is referred to as an acid-base titration. When the reaction involves oxidation and reduction, the method is referred to as a redox titration.

Uses

4.                               Volumetric analysis is used in high school and college chemistry labs to determine concentrations of unknown substances. The titrant (the known solution) is added to a known quantity of analyte (unknown solution) and a reaction takes place. Knowing the volume of the titrant allows the student to determine the concentration of the unknown substance. Medical labs and hospitals use automated titration equipment for basically the same purpose.

Examples

5.                               Volumetric analysis and titration are in wide use in a variety of industries because they are considered a basic technique in analytical chemistry. For example, titration can be used by the biodiesel industry to determine the acidity of a sample of vegetable oil. By knowing the precise amount of base that is needed to neutralize a sample of vegetable oil, scientists know how much base to add to neutralize the entire amount. Titration has similar uses in petrochemical and food industries. For example, an acid-titration may be used to determine free fatty acid content of an oil; a redox titration may be used to determine the amount of unsaturated fatty acids; and the Karl Fischer titration method may be used to analyze trace amounts of water found in a substance.

Applications of Titration

What industries use titration?

Titration is used in heaps of industries. Its used in wineries, dairy farms, mining corporations, cleaning material manufaturers, juce makers, food makers, cosmetic industries, health industries, water plants, paint makers and heaps more. Pretty much any industry that relies on something that has a pH uses titration. Usually it's used as a way to make sure that somehting's pH is sutable for human consumption or for human to be close to. However, it is also used to make sure that products, such a cleaning products, remove bacteria. Cleaning products need to be slightly acidic for these products to work so they titrate to get the right molarity. Sum up, titration is used in pretty much everything. :) Hope that helps everyone. 

What is stoichiometry?

Ratios in Balanced Chemical Reactions

When you write a balanced chemical equation, the number of atoms that go into the reaction (as reactant) must equal the number of atoms that come out as products (for each type of atom). To balance a chemical equation, you must use coefficients in front of molecules to make these numbers come out right so that the reaction is balanced.

Stoichiometry allows you to use these coefficients to predict how much of a certain molecule you will create for a reaction if you put in a certain amount of reactants. Let me illustrate with an example (which is the burning of propane gas in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water):

C₃H₈ + O₂ --> CO₂ + H₂O

This reaction is not balanced though (Look at how many C atoms go in and how many come out. Do the same with O and H. More go in than come out, right?). Instead it should be:

C₃H₈ + 5O₂ --> 3CO₂ + 4H₂O

This balanced reaction tells us then that for each propane molecule, C₃H₈, that is burned, it will produce 3 molecules of carbon dioxide, CO₂, and also 4 molecules of water, H₂O. The ratio is 1 to 3 for carbon dioxide, and 1 to 4 for water.

I can also say that if I know that I burned propane, and I produced 8 molecules of water, I know that I must have burned 2 molecules of C₃H₈. The ratio is always 1 to 4, just like in balanced reaction above.

It is all based on the ratio of the coefficients. I haven't mention oxygen yet, but it's the same thing. If I burn 1 molecule of propane, I'll need 5 of O₂ in order for the reaction to work. The ratio here is 1 to 5. I can even say that if I burned propane and I get 5 molecules of water out, than I must have used 5 molecules of oxygen (and 1 molecule of propane, and also I got out 3 molecules of carbon dioxide along with the water!). The ratio is then 1:5:3:4, which is just like in the balanced reaction above.

Note that we usually don't talk about single molecules burning, but rather moles of molecules (which is just a whole lot of molecules). The same rules work in exactly the same way with moles. If I burn 5 moles of propane, I know I will produce 15 moles of carbon dioxide and 20 moles of water. Or if I use up 5 moles of oxygen burning propane, I'll have burned 1 mole of propane, and made 3 moles of CO₂ and 4 moles of H₂O.

Why is stoichiometry important?

If a business would use excess ammounts of chemical X and Chemical Y to create chemical X₂Y, it would be costly and wasteful. Using exactly 2 moles of X and one mole of Y will make the process much more efficient. And how does one figure all this out? Stoichiomotry! 

Pakistani National Data & Mobile Phone Records Handed to US? Monday, March 15, 2010 By OmEr Jamil

By Dr. Shahid Qureshi & Fawad Ali Shah

London: Pakistani Interior Ministry under Rehman Malik linked/handed over National Data Base, (NADRA) with/to US and British embassies in Islamabad. It was handed over by a very high level official of the interior ministry yesterday according to sources.

The Interior Ministry also linked the Database available on the systems of mobile companies. In this way British and US embassies would be able to access details of the person or persons and their whole family by entering National Identity card number. By using the data of the mobile phone companies one can ‘triangulate’ the exact location of the mobile phone user, his call history, SMS and voice messages. The behind is that it will facilitate the Visa process.

USA and UK will be able to keep an eye on the movements of the people of Pakistan. After the breaking of this news other embassies for example: France, Australia, Denmark and Canada based in Islamabad also demanded similar facilities. There is a possibility that any one can misuse this facility.

While talking to the London Post in Islamabad a senior official at the interior ministry denied any knowledge of this move and said, ‘it is not possible’.

If true it is a very serious matter in the current scenario as one would like to know if US and Britain also extended same facility to Pakistani embassy in Washington and High Commission in London.

Pakistan is already sharing PICES System border control data with the USA, which India refused to install on its borders entry and exit points because US refused to provide configuration codes.

Contact Lenses That Change Color To Alert Diabetics of Glucose Levels

Jin Zhang, a professor at the University of Western Ontario, is developing contact lenses that change color with the user’s blood sugar level. This could allow diabetics to monitor themselves without frequent blood samples. The technology:
” …uses extremely small nanoparticles embedded into the hydrogel lenses. These engineered nanoparticles react with glucose molecules found in tears, causing a chemical reaction that changes their colour.” Source


Reference:


http://www.uphaa.com/blog/index.php/coolest-inventions-you-didnt-know-exist/

Monitoring food safety standards in India

AB SCIEX and its distribution partner Labindia Life Sciences are to supply the government of India with a food safety testing solution. This is part of a project with the Ministry of Agriculture to help reinforce new food safety standards through better monitoring for contamination.

In a statement from the company, the president Laura Lauman said, “Food safety is an important issue for governments around the world. AB SCIEX is assisting the efforts in India and many other countries to protect the food supply by enabling the accurate identification of contaminants through our powerful mass spectrometry solutions.”

This project uses LC–MS–MS to address pesticide contamination of fruits and vegetables. The company will provide six 3200 systems. This QTRAP system is a mass spectrometer that, according to the company, provides the ability to perform quantitative and qualitative analysis in a single scan. Specialized software provides simple steps to manage the testing and collect the data generated from the systems.

Reference

http://spectroscopyonline.findanalytichem.com/spectroscopy/News/Monitoring-food-safety-standards-in-India/ArticleStandard/Article/detail/658566?contextCategoryId=162

How to Add Meta Tags to a Blogger Blog

By Charisse Van Horn, eHow Contributing Writer

Meta search tags may not be as popular as they once were, but they are still important. Especially if you are running a website or blog and want to make sure that search engines can easily find your site and give it a good indexing. Though it's true that meta search tags are not the only factor in high search engineoptimization, they still play a vital role. However, many people who utilize a Blogger blog find it difficult to add meta search tags. Here's how to add them to your Blogger blog.

Change the HTML code in your Blog

1. 
   
   Step1
   Log into your Blogger account with your username and password. Once you are in your blog's dashboard you'll see the word manage on the right, followed by three tabs: Post, Settings and Layout. Click the Layout tab.
2. 
   
   Step2
   Look under the heading choices on the Layout tab. You'll see four choices listed: Page Elements, Fonts and Colors, Edit HTML and Pick New Template. Click the Edit HTML tab.
3. 
   
   Step3
   Backup your template if you haven't already. This is always a wise idea and will let you easily repair any accidental mistakes that you may make when you edit the HTML of your blog. Once you have made a back up of your template save it on your computer.
4. 
   
   Step4
   Hold down the CTRl button and the F key on your computer simultaneously. Make sure that you have placed your cursor in the HTML box first. This brings up a search or find window. Depending upon your Internet browser, it will either be located at the bottom or top of your computer screen.
5. 
   
   Step5
   Copy and paste the following code into the search or find box.The code will be highlighted in the HTML.
6. 
   
   Step6
   Copy and paste the following information directly above the highlighted code.
7. 
   
   Step7
   Fill in your information where it says 'DESCRIPTION HERE', KEYWORDS HERE', and 'AUTHOR NAME HERE'. Write a nice description that describes the purpose of your blog. Type in a list of keywords that describes the content of your blog and separate each term with a comma and then enter your name where it says "Author Name Here."
8. 
   
   Step8
   Click preview and view your blog. As long as everything looks correct and there are no errors, click save.